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MODUL 1

there are four language skills, and usually the one that we learn:

1. Listening
2. Speaking
3. Reading
4. Writing

writing

What is writing?

Writing is a method of representing language in visual or tactile form. Writing systems use sets of symbols to represent the sounds of speech, and may also have symbols for such things as punctuation and numerals.

Definitions of writing systems

Here are a number of ways to define writing systems:

    a system of more or less permanent marks used to represent an utterance in such a way that it can be recovered more or less exactly without the intervention of the utterer.

    From The World's Writing Systems

    a set of visible or tactile signs used to represent units of language in a systematic way, with the purpose of recording messages which can be retrieved by everyone who knows the language in question and the rules by virtue of which its units are encoded in the writing system.

    From the The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Writings Systems

All writing systems use visible signs with the exception of the raised notation systems used by blind and visually impaired people, such as Braille and Moon. Hence the need to include tactile signs in the above definition.

In A History of Writing, Steven Roger Fischer argues that no one definition of writing can cover all the writing systems that exist and have ever existed. Instead he states that a 'complete writing' system should fullfill all the following criteria:

·         it must have as its purpose communication;

·         it must consist of artificial graphic marks on a durable or electronic surface;

·         it must use marks that relate conventionally to articulate speech (the systematic arrangement of significant vocal sounds) or electronic programing in such a way that communication is achieved.

Writing systems are both functional, providing a visual way to represent language, and also symbolic, in that they represent cultures and peoples. In The writing systems of the world, Florian Coulmas describes them as follows: As the most visible items of a language, scripts and orthographies are 'emotionally loaded', indicating as they do group loyalties and identities. Rather than being mere instruments of a practical nature, they are symbolic systems of great social significance which may, moreover, have profound effect on the social structure of a speech community.

http://www.omniglot.com/writing/definition.htm

How To Write Right

Writing is an essential skill upon which all engineers and managers rely. This article outlines simple design principles for engineering's predominate product: paper.
"Sex, romance, thrills, burlesque, satire, bass ... most enjoyable".
"Here is everything one expects from this author but thricefold and three times as entertaining as anything he has written before".
"A wonderful tissue of outrageous coincidences and correspondences, teasing elevations of suspense and delayed climaxes".
(reviews of Small World by David Lodge)
This has nothing to do with engineering writing. No engineering report will ever get such reviews. The most significant point about engineering writing is that it is totally different from the writing most people were taught - and if you do not recognize and understand this difference, then your engineering writing will always miss the mark. However, this article outlines a methodical approach to writing which will enable anyone to produce great works of engineering literature.

Why Worry?

Writing is the major means of communication within an organisation; paper is thought to be the major product of professional engineers; some estimate that up to 30% of work-time is engaged in written communication. Thus it is absolutely vital for you as a Professional Engineer to actively develop the skill of writing; not only because of the time involved in writing, but also because your project's success may depend upon it. Indeed, since so much of the communication between you and more senior management occurs in writing, your whole career may depend upon its quality.

Two Roles

In an industrial context, writing has two major roles:

• it clarifies - for both writer and reader
• it conveys information

It is this deliberate, dual aim which should form the focus for all your writing activity.
There are many uses for paper within an organization; some are inefficient - but the power of paper must not be ignored because of that. In relation to a project, documentation provides a means to clarify and explain on-going development, and to plan the next stages. Memoranda are a simple mechanism for suggestions, instructions, and general organisation. The minutes of a meeting form a permanent and definitive record.
Writing is a central part of any design activity. Quality is improved since writing an explanation of the design, forces the designer to consider and explore it fully. For instance, the simple procedure of insisting upon written test-plans forces the designer to address the issue. Designs which work just "because they do" will fail later; designs whose operation is explained in writing may also fail, but the repair will be far quicker since the (documented) design is understood.
If you are having trouble expressing an idea, write it down; you (and possibly others) will then understand it. It may take you a long time to explain something "off the cuff", but if you have explained it first to yourself by writing it down - the reader can study your logic not just once but repeatedly, and the information is efficiently conveyed.

Forget the Past

Professional writing has very little to do with the composition and literature learnt at school: the objectives are different, the audience has different needs, and the rewards in engineering can be far greater. As engineers, we write for very distinct and restricted purposes, which are best achieved through simplicity.
English at school has two distinct foci: the analysis and appreciation of the great works of literature, and the display of knowledge. It is all a question of aim. A novel entertains. It forces the reader to want to know: what happens next. On the other hand, an engineering report is primarily designed to convey information. The engineer's job is helped if the report is interesting; but time is short and the sooner the meat of the document is reached, the better. The novel would start: "The dog grew ill from howling so ..."; the engineer's report would start (and probably end): "The butler killed Sir John with a twelve inch carving knife".
In school we are taught to display knowledge. The more information and argument, the more marks. In industry, it is totally different. Here the wise engineer must extract only the significant information and support it with only the minimum-necessary argument. The expertise is used to filter the information and so to remove inessential noise. The engineer as expert provides the answers to problems, not an exposition of past and present knowledge: we use our knowledge to focus upon the important points.

For the Future

When you approach any document, follow this simple procedure:

1. Establish the AIM
2. Consider the READER
3. Devise the STRUCTURE
4. DRAFT the text
5. EDIT and REVISE

That is it. For the rest of this article, we will expand upon these points and explain some techniques to make the document effective and efficient - but these five stages (all of them) are what you need to remember.

Aim

You start with your aim. Every document must have a single aim - a specific, specified reason for being written. If you can not think of one, do something useful instead; if you can not decide what the document should achieve, it will not achieve it.
Once you have established your aim, you must then decide what information is necessary in achieving that aim. The reader wants to find the outcome of your thoughts: apply your expertise to the available information, pick out the very-few facts which are relevant, and state them precisely and concisely.

The Reader

A document tells somebody something. As the writer, you have to decide what to tell and how best to tell it to the particular audience; you must consider the reader.
There are three considerations:

• What they already know affects what you can leave out.
• What they need to know determines what you include.
• Wha

t they want to know suggests the order and emphasis of your writing.

For instance, in a products proposal, marketing will want to see the products differentiation and niche in the market place; finance will be interested in projected development costs, profit margins and risk analysis; and R&D will want the technical details of the design. To be most effective, you may need to produce three different reports for the three different audiences.
The key point, however, is that writing is about conveying information - conveying; that means it has to get there. Your writing must be right for the reader, or it will lost on its journey; you must focus upon enabling the reader's access to the information.

Structure

Writing is very powerful - and for this reason, it can be exploited in engineering. The power comes from its potential as an efficient and effective means of communication; the power is derived from order and clarity. Structure is used to present the information so that it is more accessible to the reader.
In all comes down to the problem of the short attention span. You have to provide the information in small manageable chunks, and to use the structure of the document to maintain the context. As engineers, this is easy since we are used to performing hierarchical decomposition of designs - and the same procedure can be applied to writing a document.
While still considering the aim and the reader, the document is broken down into distinct sections which can be written (and read) separately. These sections are then each further decomposed into subsections (and sub-subsections) until you arrive at simple, small units of information - which are expressed as a paragraph, or a diagram.
Every paragraph in your document should justify itself; it should serve a purpose, or be removed. A paragraph should convey a single idea. There should be a statement of that key idea and (possibly) some of the following:

• a development of the idea
• an explanation or analogy
• an illustration
• support with evidence
• contextual links to reinforce the structure

As engineers, though, you are allowed to avoid words entirely in places; diagrams are often much better than written text. Whole reports can be written with them almost exclusively and you should always consider using one in preference to a paragraph. Not only do diagrams convey some information more effectively, but often they assist in the analysis and interpretation of the data. For instance, a pie chart gives a quicker comparison than a list of numbers; a simple bar chart is far more intelligible than the numbers it represents. The only problem with diagrams is the writer often places less effort in their design than their information-content merits - and so some is lost or obscure. They must be given due care: add informative labels and titles, highlight any key entries, remove unnecessary information.

Draft, Revise and Edit

When you have decided what to say, to whom you are saying it, and how to structure it; say it - and then check it for clarity and effectiveness. The time spent doing this will be far less than the time wasted by other people struggling with the document otherwise.
The following are a few points to consider as you wield the red pen over your newly created opus.

Layout

The main difference between written and verbal communication is that the reader can choose and re-read the various sections, whereas the listener receives information in the sequence determined by the speaker. Layout should be used to make the structure plain, and so more effective: it acts as a guide to the reader.
Suppose you have three main points to make; do not hide them within simple text - make them obvious. Make it so that the reader's eye jumps straight to them on the page. For instance, the key to effective layout is to use:

• informative titles
• white space
• variety

Another way to make a point obvious is to use a different font.

Style

People in business do not have the time to marvel at your florid turn off phrase or incessant illiteration. They want to know what the document is about and (possibly) what it says; there is no real interest in style, except for ease of access.
In some articles a summary can be obtained by reading the first sentence of each paragraph. The remainder of each paragraph is simply an expansion upon, or explanation of, the initial sentence. In other writing, the topic is given first in a summary form, and then successively repeated with greater detail each time. This is the pyramid structure favoured by newspapers.
A really short and simple document is bound to be read. This has lead to the "memo culture" in which every communication is condensed to one side of A4. Longer documents need to justify themselves to their readers' attention.

The Beginning

Let us imagine the reader. Let us call her Ms X.
Ms X has a lot to do today: she has a meeting tomorrow morning with the regional VP, a call to make to the German design office, several letters to dictate concerning safety regulations, and this months process-data has failed to reach her. She is busy and distracted. You have possibly 20 seconds for your document to justify itself to her. If by then it has not explained itself and convinced her that she needs to read it - Ms X will tackle something else. If Ms X is a good manager, she will insist on a rewrite; if not, the document may never be read. action).
Thus the beginning of your document is crucial. It must be obvious to the reader at once what the document is about, and why it should be read. You need to catch the readers attention but with greater subtlety than this article; few engineering reports can begin with the word sex.
Unlike a novel, the engineering document must not contain "teasing elevations of suspense". Take your "aim", and either state it or achieve it by the end of the first paragraph.
For instance, if you have been evaluating a new software package for possible purchase then your reports might begin: "Having evaluated the McBlair Design Suite, I recommend that ...".

Punctuation

Punctuation is used to clarify meaning and to highlight structure. It can also remove ambiguity: a cross section of customers can be rendered less frightening simply by adding a hyphen (a cross-section of customers).
Engineers tend not to punctuate - which deprives us of this simple tool. Despite what some remember from school, punctuation has simple rules which lead to elegance and easy interpretation. If you want a summary of punctuation, try The Concise Oxford Dictionary (1990); and if you want a full treatise, complete with worked examples (of varying degrees of skill), read You Have A Point There by Eric Partridge.
For now, let us look at two uses of two punctuation marks. If you do not habitually use these already, add them to your repertoire by deliberately looking for opportunities in your next piece of writing.
The two most common uses of the Colon are:
1) To introduce a list which explains, or provides the information promised in, the previous clause.

A manager needs two planning tools: prescience and a prayer.

2) To separate main clauses where the second is a step forward from the first: statement to example, statement to explanation, cause to effect, introduction to main point.

To err is human: we use computers.

The two most common uses of the Semicolon are:

1) to unite sentences that are closely associated, complementary or parallel:

Writing is a skill; one must practise to improve a skill.

Engineers engineer; accountants account for the cost.

2) to act as a stronger comma, either for emphasis or to establish a hierarchy

The report was a masterpiece; of deception and false promises.

The teams were Tom, Dick and Harry; and Mandy, Martha and Mary.

Spelling

For some, spelling is a constant problem. In the last analysis, incorrect speling distracts the reader and detracts from the authority of the author. Computer spell-checking programmes provide great assistance, especially when supported by a good dictionary. Chronic spellers should always maintain a (preferably alphabetical) list of corrected errors, and try to learn new rules (and exceptions!). For instance (in British English) advice-advise, device-devise, licence-license, practice-practise each follow the same pattern: the -ice is a noun, the -ise is a verb.

Simple Errors

For important documents, there is nothing better than a good, old-fashioned proof-read. As an example, the following comes from a national advertising campaign/quiz run by a famous maker of Champagne:

Question 3: Which Country has one the Triple Crown the most times?

Won understands the error, but is not impressed by the quality of that company's product.

Sentence Length

Avoid long sentences. We tend to associate "unit of information" with "a sentence". Consequently when reading, we process the information when we reach the full stop. If the sentence is too long, we lose the information either because of our limited attention span or because the information was poorly decomposed to start with and might, perhaps, have been broken up into smaller, or possibly better punctuated, sentences which would better have kept the attention of the reader and, by doing so, have reinforced the original message with greater clarity and simplicity.

Word Length

It is inappropriate to utilize verbose and bombastic terminology when a suitable alternative would be to: keep it simple. Often the long, complex word will not be understood. Further, if the reader is distracted by the word itself, then less attention is paid to the meaning or to the information you wished to convey.

Jargon

I believe that a digital human-computer-interface data-entry mechanism should be called a keyboard; I don't know why, but I do.

Wordiness

When one is trying hard to write an impressive document, it is easy to slip into grandiose formulae: words and phrases which sound significant but which convey nothing but noise.
You must exterminate. So: "for the reason that" becomes "because"; "with regards to" becomes "about"; "in view of the fact that" becomes "since"; "within a comparatively short period of time" becomes "soon".
Often you can make a sentence sound more like spoken English simply be changing the word order and adjusting the verb. So: "if the department experiences any difficulties in the near future regarding attendance of meetings" becomes "if staff cannnot attend the next few meetings". As a final check, read your document aloud; if it sounds stilted, change it.

Conclusion

Writing is a complex tool, you need to train yourself in its use or a large proportion of your activity will be grossly inefficient. You must reflect upon your writing lest it reflects badly upon you.
If you want one message to take from this article, take this: the writing of a professional engineer should be clear, complete and concise. If your document satisfies these three criteria, then it deserves to be read.

by Gerard M Blair http://www.ee.ed.ac.uk/~gerard/Management/art4.html

reading 

Reading is a complex cognitive process of decoding symbols in order to construct or derive meaning (reading comprehension). It is a means of language acquisition, of communication, and of sharing information and ideas. Like all language, it is a complex interaction between the text and the reader which is shaped by the reader’s prior knowledge, experiences, attitude, and language community which is culturally and socially situated. The reading process requires continuous practice, development, and refinement.
Readers use a variety of reading strategies to assist with decoding (to translate symbols into sounds or visual representations of speech) and comprehension. Readers may use morpheme, semantics, syntax and context clues to identify the meaning of unknown words. Readers integrate the words they have read into their existing framework of knowledge or schema (schemata theory).
Other types of reading are not speech based writing systems, such as music notation or pictograms. The common link is the interpretation of symbols to extract the meaning from the visual notations.

Reading skill

Reading is the receptive skill in the written mode. It can develop independently of listening and speaking skills, but often develops along with them, especially in societies with a highly-developed literary tradition. Reading can help build vocabulary that helps listening comprehension at the later stages, particularly.

Micro-skills
	Here are some of the micro-skills involved in reading. The reader has to:
	decipher the script. In an alphabetic system or a syllabary, this means establishing a relationship between sounds and symbols. In a pictograph system, it means associating the meaning of the words with written symbols. recognize vocabulary. pick out key words, such as those identifying topics and main ideas. figure out the meaning of the words, including unfamiliar vocabulary, from the (written) context. recognize grammatical word classes: noun, adjective, etc. detect sentence constituents, such as subject, verb, object, prepositions, etc. recognize basic syntactic patterns. reconstruct and infer situations, goals and participants. use both knowledge of the world and lexical and grammatical cohesive devices to make the foregoing inferences, predict outcomes, and infer links and connections among the parts of the text. get the main point or the most important information. distinguish the main idea from supporting details. adjust reading strategies to different reading purposes, such as skimming for main ideas or studying in-depth.

Literacy is the ability to use the symbols of a writing system. To be able to interpret the information symbols represent, and to be able to re-create those same symbols so that others can derive the same meaning. Illiteracy is not having the ability to derive meaning from the symbols used in a writing system.
Dyslexia refers to a cognitive difficulty with reading and writing. It is defined as brain-based type of learning disability that specifically impairs a person's ability to read.^[4] The term dyslexia can refer to two disorders: developmental dyslexia^[5][6][7][8] which is a learning disability; alexia (acquired dyslexia) refers to reading difficulties that occur following brain damage, stroke, or progressive illness^[9][10].
Major predictors of an individual's ability to read both alphabetic and nonalphabetic scripts are phonological awareness, rapid automatized naming and verbal IQ.^[11]

Skill development

Both the Lexical and the Sub-lexical cognitive processes contribute to how we learn to read.

Sub-lexical reading

Sub-lexical reading,^{[12][13][14][15]} involves teaching reading by associating characters or groups of characters with sounds or by using Phonics or Synthetic phonics learning and teaching methodology. Sometimes argued to be in competition with whole language methods.

Lexical reading

Lexical reading^{[12][13][14][15]} involves acquiring words or phrases without attention to the characters or groups of characters that compose them or by using Whole language learning and teaching methodology. Sometimes argued to be in competition with Phonics and Synthetic phonics methods, and that the whole language approach tends to impair learning how to spell.
Other methods of teaching and learning to read have developed, and become somewhat controversial.^[16]
Learning to read in a second language, especially in adulthood, may be a different process than learning to read a native language in childhood. There are cases of very young children learning to read without having been taught.^[17] Such was the case with Truman Capote who reportedly taught himself to read and write at the age of five. There are also accounts of people who taught themselves to read by comparing street signs or Biblical passages to speech. The novelist Nicholas Delbanco taught himself to read at age six during a transatlantic crossing by studying a book about boats.^{[citation needed]}
Brain activity in young and older children can be used to predict future reading skill. Cross model mapping between the orthographic and phonologic areas in the brain are critical in reading. Thus, the amount of activation in the left dorsal inferior frontal gyrus while performing reading tasks can be used to predict later reading ability and advancement. Young children with higher phonological word characteristic processing have significantly better reading skills later on than older children who focus on whole-word orthographic representation.^[18]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reading_%28process%29

Listening

"[L]istening does not mean simply maintaining a polite silence while you are rehearsing in your mind the speech you are going to make the next time you can grab a conversational opening. Nor does listening mean waiting alertly for the flaws in the other fellow's argument so that later you can mow him down. Listening means trying to see the problem the way the speaker sees it--which means not sympathy, which is feeling for him, but empathy, which is experiencing with him. Listening requires entering actively and imaginatively into the other fellow's situation and trying to understand a frame of reference different from your own. This is not always an easy task.

"But a good listener does not merely remain silent. He asks questions. However, these questions must avoid all implications (whether in tone of voice or in wording) of skepticism or challenge or hostility. They must clearly be motivated by curiosity about the speaker's views."
(S.I. Hayakawa, "How to Attend a Conference." The Use and Misuse of Language, ed. by S.I. Hayakawa. Fawcett Premier, 1962)

·  Ten Keys to Effective Listening

1. Find areas of interest.
2. Judge content, not delivery.
3. Hold your fire.
4. Listen for ideas.
5. Be flexible.
6. Work at listening.
7. Resist distractions.
8. Exercise your mind.
9. Keep your mind open.
10. Anticipate, summarize, weigh the evidence, and look between the lines.

(adapted from a brochure distributed in the 1980s by the Sperry Corporation, now Unisys)

·  "Listening is more complex than merely hearing. It is a process that consists of four stages: sensing and attending, understanding and interpreting, remembering, and responding . . .. The stages occur in sequence but we are generally unaware of them."
(Sheila Steinberg, An Introduction to Communication Studies. Juta and Company Ltd., 2007)

·  "The reason why we have two ears and only one mouth is that we may listen the more and talk the less."
(Zeno of Citium)

·  "There are four elements of good listening:

1. attention--the focused perception of both visual and verbal stimuli
2. hearing--the physiological act of 'opening the gates to your ears'
3. understanding--assigning meaning to the messages received
4. remembering--the storing of meaningful information

In addition to the four elements, there are also four levels of listening: acknowledging, sympathizing, paraphrasing, and empathizing. The four levels of listening range from passive to interactive when considered separately. However, the most effective listeners are able to project all four levels at the same time. That is, they demonstrate that they are paying attention and making an effort to understand and evaluate what it is they are hearing, and they complete the process by demonstrating through their responses their level of comprehension and interest in what the speaker is saying."
(Marvin Gottlieb, Managing Group Process. Praeger, 2003)

·  "Active listening involves six skills: paying attention, holding judgment, reflecting, clarifying, summarizing, and sharing. Each skill contributes to the active listening mind-set, and each skill includes various techniques or behaviors. These skills are not mutually exclusive. For example, paying attention isn't something you stop doing when you start holding judgment. Nor are the skills consistently weighed in importance. In one conversation, clarifying may take much effort and time; in another conversation, gaining clarity and understanding may be quick and easy."
(Michael H. Hoppe, Active Listening: Improve Your Ability to Listen and Lead. Center for Creative Leadership, 2006)

Active listening

Active listening is a communication technique that requires the listener to feed back what he hears to the speaker, by way of re-stating or paraphrasing what he has heard in his own words, to confirm what he has heard and moreover, to confirm the understanding of both parties. The ability to listen actively demonstrates sincerity, and that nothing is being assumed or taken for granted. Active listening is most often used to improve personal relationships, reduce misunderstanding and conflicts, strengthen cooperation, and foster understanding. It is proactive, accountable and professional.^{[citation needed]}
When interacting, people often "wait to speak" rather than 'hear' attentively. They might also be distracted. Active listening is a structured way of listening and responding to others, focusing attention on the "function" of communicating objectively as opposed to focussing on "forms," passive expression or subjectivity.^{[citation needed]}
There are many opinions on what is "active listening." A search of the term reveals interpretations of the "activity" as including "interpreting body language" or focusing on something other than words. Successful communication is the establishment of common ground between two people—understanding.^{[citation needed]} Agreeing to disagree is common ground. Common ground can be false, i.e., a person says they feel a certain way but they don't. Nevertheless it is common ground, once accepted as understood. Dialogue, understanding and progress can only arise from that common ground. And that common ground cannot be established without respect for the words as spoken by the speaker, for whatever reason.^{[citation needed]}
Thus the essence of active listening is as brutally simple as it is effective: paraphrasing the speakers words back to them as a question.^{[citation needed]} There is little room for assumption or interpretation. It is functional, mechanical and leaves little doubt as to what is meant by what is said. "The process is successful if the person receiving the information gives feedback which shows understanding for meaning.^{[citation needed]} Suspending one's own frame of reference, suspending judgment and avoiding other internal mental activities are important to fully attend to the speaker.

Comprehending

Comprehension is "shared meaning between parties in a communication transaction".^[1] This is the first step in the listening process. The first challenge for the listener is accurately identifying speech sounds and understanding and synthesizing these sounds as words.^{[citation needed]} We are constantly bombarded with auditory stimuli, so the listener has to select which of those stimuli are speech sounds and choose to pay attention to the appropriate sounds (attending).^{[citation needed]} The second challenge is being able to discern breaks between discernable words, or speech segmentation.^[1] This becomes significantly more difficult with an unfamiliar language because the speech sounds blend together into a continuous jumble. Determining the context and meanings of each word is essential to comprehending a sentence.^{[citation needed]}

Retaining

This is the second step in the listening process. Memory is essential to the listening process^{[citation needed]}because the information we retain when involved in the listening process is how we create meaning from words.^{[citation needed]} We depend on our memory to fill in the blanks when we're listening.^{[citation needed]} Because everyone has different memories, the speaker and the listener may attach different meanings to the same statement.^{[citation needed]} However, our memories are fallible and we can't remember everything that we've ever listened to.^{[citation needed]} There are many reasons why we forget some information that we've received.^{[citation needed]} The first is cramming. When you cram there is a lot of information entered into your short term memory.^{[citation needed]} Shortly after cramming, when you don't need the information anymore, it is purged from your brain before it can be transferred into your long term memory.^[2] The second reason is that you aren't paying attention when you receive the information.^{[citation needed]} Alternatively, when you receive the information you may not attach importance to it, so it loses its meaning.^{[citation needed]} A fourth reason is at the time the information was received you lacked motivation to listen carefully to better remember it.^[1] Using information immediately after receiving it enhances information retention and lessens the forgetting curve (the rate at which we no longer retain information in our memory).^[3] Retention is lessened when we engage in mindless listening, where little effort is made to listen to a speaker's message. Mindful listening is active listening.

Responding

Listening is an interaction between speaker and listener.^{[citation needed]} It adds action to a normally passive process. The speaker looks for verbal and nonverbal responses from the listener to determine if the message is being listened to.^{[citation needed]} Usually the response is nonverbal because if the response is verbal the speaker/listener roles are reversed so the listener becomes the speaker and is no longer listening.^{[citation needed]} Based on the response the speaker chooses to either adjust or continue with his/her communication style.